Extended working memory training with the dual n-back task has been shown to improve performance on various untrained cognitive tasks, but previous findings were inconsistent with regard to the extent of such transfer. The dual n-back training task addresses multiple components of working memory as sequential information from two different stimulus modalities needs to be simultaneously encoded, maintained, continuously monitored and updated in working memory while irrelevant information needs to be inhibited. However, it is unclear which executive functions account for (...) the observed transfer effects. In this study, the degree of inhibitory control required during training was manipulated by comparing two versions of the dual n-back task in which participants are asked to either respond or withhold a response on the less frequent trials when an item was identical to an item n trials back. Eight 80-min sessions of training with adaptive versions of both n-back tasks were shown to improve working memory updating. Moreover, in contrast to the standard n-back task, training on the inhibitory n-back task was found to reduce the interference in working memory produced by task-irrelevant speech. This result suggests that enhanced demand for inhibitory control during training enables transfer to the inhibition of distractor interference, whereas the standard n-back task primarily affects working memory updating. The training effects did not transfer to the inhibition of spatially incompatible responses in a Simon task, and it yielded no far transfer effects to untrained executive functions or measures of fluid intelligence. (shrink)

The creation or streaming of photo-realistic self-avatars is important for virtual reality applications that aim for perception and action to replicate real world experience. The appearance and recognition of a digital self-avatar may be especially important for applications related to telepresence, embodied virtual reality, or immersive games. We investigated gender differences in the use of visual cues (shape, texture) of a self-avatar for estimating body weight and evaluating avatar appearance. A full-body scanner was used to capture each participant's body geometry (...) and color information and a set of 3D virtual avatars with realistic weight variations was created based on a statistical body model. Additionally, a second set of avatars was created with an average underlying body shape matched to each participant's height and weight. In four sets of psychophysical experiments, the influence of visual cues on the accuracy of body weight estimation and the sensitivity to weight changes was assessed by manipulating body shape (own, average) and texture (own photo-realistic, checkerboard). The avatars were presented on a large-screen display, and participants responded to whether the avatar's weight corresponded to their own weight. Participants also adjusted the avatar's weight to their desired weight and evaluated the avatar's appearance with regard to similarity to their own body, uncanniness, and their willingness to accept it as a digital representation of the self. The results of the psychophysical experiments revealed no gender difference in the accuracy of estimating body weight in avatars. However, males accepted a larger weight range of the avatars as corresponding to their own. In terms of the ideal body weight, females but not males desired a thinner body. With regard to the evaluation of avatar appearance, the questionnaire responses suggest that own photo-realistic texture was more important to males for higher similarity ratings, while own body shape seemed to be more important to females. These results argue for gender-specific considerations when creating self-avatars. (shrink)

Wearable robots (WRs) are increasingly moving out of the labs toward real-world applications. In order for WRs to be effectively and widely adopted by end-users, a common benchmarking framework needs to be established. In this article, we outline the perspectives that in our opinion are the main determinants of this endeavor, and exemplify the complex landscape into three areas. The first perspective is related to quantifying the technical performance of the device and the physical impact of the device on the (...) user. The second one refers to the understanding of the user's perceptual, emotional, and cognitive experience of (and with) the technology. The third one proposes a strategic path for a global benchmarking methodology, composed by reproducible experimental procedures representing real-life conditions. We hope that this paper can enable developers, researchers, clinicians and end-users to efficiently identify the most promising directions for validating their technology and drive future research efforts in the short and medium term. (shrink)

Because of the immense importance of professional competencies the measurement and modeling thereof has been become an important research field. In light of the (re)structuring of competence-oriented study programs, this importance can especially be expanded to the field of tertiary education. For this reason, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research funded the research initiative "competency modeling and measurement in higher education” („Kompetenzmodellierung und Kompetenzerfassung im Hochschulsektor"; KoKoHS) in 2011. The presented joint research project (University of Frankfurt, University of (...) Mannheim, and Technical University Darmstadt) "Modelling and Measurement of Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Business and Economic Education“ ("Modellierung und Erfassung fachwissenschaftlicher und fachdidaktischer Kompetenzen im wirtschaftspädagogischen Studium"; KoMeWP) was a part of this research initiative and focuses on the issue of examining competencies in German (n =1,158) and Austrian (n =249) business education students. The overall objective of this project was to establish a theoretical definition of the competence of prospective business and economics teachers, develop a corresponding competence structure model, and empirically support the model in terms of psychometric quality. Thus, the foundation of this PhD thesis is a conception of competence, in which competence comprises the aspects of professional knowledge (facets: knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge), self-regulation, and teaching-learningprocess-related beliefs. The prerequisite for testing the model was to first examine the included instruments individually. Initially in study 1, the instrument for measuring professional knowledge was investigated. The most important finding is the underpinning of the two-dimensional structure of professional knowledge and thus, be connected to important international research findings. Furthermore, the results indicate that the instrument has satisfactory reliabilities (content knowledge:.64; pedagogical content knowledge:.64) and good psychometric quality. In summary, the developed instrument allows one to measure in detail the professional knowledge of prospective business educators in the field of accounting/bookkeeping. In the second step, the framework conditions of professional knowledge acquisition interested. Thus, in study 2 the role of additional university course offerings (in addition to the compulsory courses), completed internships, vocational training with relevant professional reference, and attending a commercial school was examined. It turned out, that the influence of additional university offerings plays a relatively minor role. In contrast, significant influences of non-university learning opportunities (especially commercial training) on the facets of professional knowledge were found. Study 3 examined whether the previously mentioned theoretically modeled competence structure could be confirmed empirically. During these investigations, the individual instruments for measuring beliefs (self-developed) and self-regulation (adapted; Schmidt, 2009), were (re)analyzed. This resulted in suitable, high quality instruments to measure these aspects of professional competence. Overall, the results showed good model fit indices. In addition, the learning opportunities mentioned in study 2 were included in the model. Similar to the results of study 2, it was found that non-academic learning opportunities have a higher influence in terms of knowledge acquisition than taking additional university courses. It can be stated that in the context of the joint project and this thesis it has been possible, to make an important and significant contribution with satisfactory results to the very latest research field of modelling and measuring competencies. (shrink)

Interacting with our visual environment can be challenging due to its highly dynamic nature and richness in complex interrelationships. With the human visual system's constraint of having a narrow field of high resolution, we must actively shift our attention between different visual areas to acquire relevant visual information to accomplish our tasks. Extracting this task-relevant information from our environment can be challenging and further amplified by our world’s inherently probabilistic nature. Sensory perception often presents ambiguities with varying results from identical (...) measurements and vice versa. Similarly, the consequences of our actions are usually governed by uncertainty, which originates from several internal and external factors. Finally, the relevance of completing a particular task or even the definition of the task and its associated costs are highly variable across individuals. Thus, uncertainty is a fundamental factor at multiple stages while interacting with our visual environment. Sensory perception, decision-making, and actions are inseparably intertwined, and it is, therefore, all the more critical that we deal with the arising uncertainties and develop strategies to reduce them as far as possible. Computationally, this aligns with the concept of planning. In this thesis, we are investigating the active nature of visual planning as a probabilistic decision-making process under uncertainty. We designed various experimental paradigms to quantify sensory uncertainty, action variability, and the behavioral costs of human behavior in sequential visual tasks. For this purpose, we use the framework of Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes (POMDPs), which allow us to normatively model decision-making processes by incorporating different sources of uncertainty. Using three case studies, we demonstrate its use, advantages, and possibilities, starting with the most straightforward visual action - blinking. Even this simple action has to be planned since every blink briefly interrupts the visual information stream. We then move on to more complex visual actions such as saccades and gaze selection. First, we consider one-step ahead predictions in the context of free viewing and saliency models before moving on to a complex example of a gaze-contingent paradigm task where, in addition to observations, rewards are dynamic and uncertain. Last, we consider two other studies more detached from the experimental environment and devoted to more natural stimuli. We investigate how humans navigate mazes and their associated planning strategies of eye movements to find the solution. Also, we designed a reading experiment including an adaptive font system that maximizes the subjects' individual reading speed and thus reduces the underlying internal behavioral costs. Our results conclude that human visual behavior should be seen as an active sequential decision process under uncertainty where POMDPs can provide a powerful tool for modeling. (shrink)

Most studies in usable security research aim at a quantification of persons, who – depending on the subject – fall for phishing, pass on their password, download malicious software and so on. In contrast, little research is done to identify the reasons for such insecure behavior. Within this paper, the result of a laboratory study is presented in which participants were confronted with different certificate warnings. Those warnings were presented when the participants tried to access different websites with different criticality (...) (online banking, online shopping, social networks and information sites). Besides quantitative analyses of participants who were willing to use a websites despite the warning, the main focus of this work is to identify reasons for their decision. As a result of our study those risks are identified which were unacceptable for most participants to take and thereby might help to prevent unsecure usage behavior in the web by rewording warnings according to the perceived risks. (shrink)

Children's participation in legal proceedings affecting them personally has been gaining importance. So far, a primary research concern has been how children experience their participation in court proceedings. However, little is known about the child's voice itself: Are children able to clearly express their wishes, and if so, what do they say in child protection cases? In this study, we extracted information about children's statements from court file data of 220 child protection cases in Germany. We found 182 children were (...) asked about their wishes. The majority of the statements found came either from reports of the guardians ad litem or from judicial records of the child hearings. Using content analysis, three main aspects of the statements were extracted: wishes concerning main place of residence, wishes about whom to have or not contact with, and children granting decision‐making authority to someone else. Children's main focus was on their parents, but others (e.g., relatives and foster care providers) were also mentioned. Intercoder agreement was substantial. Making sure that child hearings are as informative as possible is in the child's best interest. Therefore, the categories developed herein might help professionals to ask questions more precisely relevant to the child. (shrink)

This paper discusses key conceptual resources for an understanding of coordination processes in team sports. It begins by exploring the action guidance provided by the environment, studied in terms of affordances. When conceptualizing sporting performances in general, we might distinguish social and object affordances, think about the spatial and temporal order of affordances in terms of nested and sequential affordances, and differentiate between global, main, and micro-affordances within an action sequence. In the context of team sports, it is crucial to (...) understand how affordances might be given to a plurality of athletes. For that purpose, the paper defines shared, common, and collective affordances. A distinguishing characteristic of team sports is the key role of collaborative intra-team coordination which take place within a setting of antagonistic team-team interactions. A key proposal from dynamical systems theory is to conceptualize intra-team coordination in terms of synergies. Synergies are emergent systems of several athletes who coordinate their movements to achieve specific performance tasks. Many of the embodied skills that players need to develop to become suitable participants in the coordination processes of sport teams are abilities to participate in dynamic sequences of collective activity. Praxeological approaches have emphasized that training processes in team sports are aimed at transforming athletes into skillful participants in sequences of collective play. Athletes need to develop their ability-to-play-with to become proficient in contributing to the formation of suitable collectives for specific performance tasks. (shrink)

Introduction: Several lifestyle factors promote protection against Alzheimer's disease (AD) throughout a person's lifespan. Although such protective effects have been described for occupational cognitive requirements (OCR) in midlife, it is currently unknown whether they are conveyed by brain maintenance (BM), brain reserve (BR), or cognitive reserve (CR) or a combination of them. Methods: We systematically derived hypotheses for these resilience concepts and tested them in the population-based AgeCoDe cohort and memory clinic-based AD high-risk DELCODE study. The OCR score (OCRS) was (...) measured using job activities based on the O*NET occupational classification system. Four sets of analyses were conducted: (1) the interaction of OCR and APOE-ε4 with regard to cognitive decline (N = 2,369, AgeCoDe), (2) association with differentially shaped retrospective trajectories before the onset of dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT; N = 474, AgeCoDe), (3) cross-sectional interaction of the OCR and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers and brain structural measures regarding memory function (N = 873, DELCODE), and (4) cross-sectional and longitudinal association of OCR with CSF AD biomarkers and brain structural measures (N = 873, DELCODE). Results: Regarding (1), higher OCRS was associated with a reduced association of APOE-ε4 with cognitive decline (mean follow-up = 6.03 years), consistent with CR and BR. Regarding (2), high OCRS was associated with a later onset but subsequently stronger cognitive decline in individuals converting to DAT, consistent with CR. Regarding (3), higher OCRS was associated with a weaker association of the CSF Aβ42/40 ratio and hippocampal volume with memory function, consistent with CR. Regarding (4), OCR was not associated with the levels or changes in CSF AD biomarkers (mean follow-up = 2.61 years). We found a cross-sectional, age-independent association of OCRS with some MRI markers, but no association with 1-year-change. OCR was not associated with the intracranial volume. These results are not completely consistent with those of BR or BM. Discussion: Our results support the link between OCR and CR. Promoting and seeking complex and stimulating work conditions in midlife could therefore contribute to increased resistance to pathologies in old age and might complement prevention measures aimed at reducing pathology. (shrink)

Setting high and specific goals is one of the best-established management tools to increase performance and motivation. However, in recent years, potential downsides of goal-setting are being discussed. One possible downside is the high risk of failing the goal. In an approach to integrate research on the consequences of goal-failure and the basic assumptions of goal-setting theory, we investigated whether failure of a high and specific goal has detrimental effects on a person’s affect, self-esteem, and motivation. In Experiment 1, 185 (...) participants received fictitious feedback about attaining or failing an assigned high and specific goal. In Experiment 2 with 86 participants, we manipulated goal-failure through task-difficulty and we included task choice as a behavioral measure of motivation. In both experiments, participants who failed the high and specific goal showed a decrease in affect, self-esteem, and motivation compared to participants who attained that goal. Results indicate that failing a high and specific goal can be damaging for self-related factors that may be crucial for organizational long-term outcomes. We advise organizations to consider potential undesirable effects when using goal-setting interventions. (shrink)

In this rejoinder, we respond to two commentaries on the study by Greiff, S.; Stadler, M.; Sonnleitner, P.; Wolff, C.; Martin, R. Sometimes less is more: Comparing the validity of complex problem solving measures. Intelligence 2015, 50, 100–113. The study was the first to address the important comparison between a classical measure of complex problem solving (CPS) and the more recent multiple complex systems (MCS) approach regarding their validity. In the study, we investigated the relations between one classical microworld as (...) the initially developed method (here, the Tailorshop) with three more recently developed multiple complex systems (MCS; here, MicroDYN, Genetics Lab, and MicroFIN) tests. We found that the MCS tests showed higher levels of convergent validity with each other than with the Tailorshop even after reasoning was controlled for, thus empirically distinguishing between the two approaches. The commentary by Kretzschmar and the commentary by Funke, Fischer, and Holt expressed several concerns with how our study was conducted, our data was analyzed, and our results were interpreted. Whereas we acknowledge and agree with some of the more general statements made in these commentaries, we respectfully disagree with others, or we consider them to be at least partially in contrast with the existing literature and the currently available empirical evidence. (shrink)

Aircraft noise exposure is a health risk and there is evidence that noise annoyance partly mediates the association between noise exposure and stress-related health risks. Thus, approaches to reduce annoyance may be beneficial for health. Annoyance is influenced by manifold non-acoustic factors and perceiving a fair and trustful relationship between the airport and its residents may be one of them. The distribution of aircraft noise exposure can be regarded as a fairness dilemma: while residents living near an airport may seem (...) to have some advantages, the majority of residents living under certain flight routes or in their immediate proximity suffer from the disadvantages of the airport, especially the noise. Moreover, a dilemma exists between the airport’s beneficial economic impact for a region and the physical and psychological integrity of residents. Aircraft noise exposure through the lens of social justice research can help to improve our understanding of noise annoyance. Research indicates that the fairness perceptions of the parties involved can be enhanced by (a) improving individual cost–benefit ratios, (b) providing a fair procedure for deciding upon the noise distribution, and (c) implementing fair social interaction with residents. Based on the review of evidence from social justice research, we derive recommendations on how fairness aspects can be integrated into aircraft noise management with the purpose of improving the relationship between the airport and its residents, to reduce annoyance, and to enhance the acceptance of local aviation and the airport as a neighbor. (shrink)

The possibility to define custom privacy settings in Facebook has been improved over the last years. Still,numerous users do not know how to change those settings or do not use the settings because they are cumbersome to use. Within this paper a new method for defining the privacy settings in online social networks is presented that uses the social distance between users as setting criterion. This approach was tested as a paper prototype in a first user study with 10 participants. (...) Results show that the number of errors was significantly decreased and that the subjective evaluation of the interface was promising. (shrink)

Most studies in usable security research aim at a quantification of persons, who – depending on the subject – fall for phishing, pass on their password, download malicious software and so on. In contrast, little research is done to identify the reasons for such insecure behavior. Within this paper, the result of a laboratory study is presented in which participants were confronted with different certificate warnings. Those warnings were presented when the participants tried to access different websites with different criticality (...) (online banking, online shopping, social networks and information sites). Besides quantitative analyses of participants who were willing to use a websites despite the warning, the main focus of this work is to identify reasons for their decision. As a result of our study those risks are identified which were unacceptable for most participants to take and thereby might help to prevent unsecure usage behavior in the web by rewording warnings according to the perceived risks. (shrink)

Until this day, e-learning scenarios have not been able to meet the great expectations that have been put on them. From a psychological point of view, one of the reasons for previously disappointing results is the high degree of freedom that e-learning scenarios confront individuals with. The concept of self-regulated learning (SRL) provides a framework for improving the quality of learning in environments of high self-determination. Following the assumption that the deployment of SRL processes during learning is an indicator for (...) a learning process of high quality, which in turn entails a learning outcome of high quality, scientists have created a variety of SRL interventions. In line with this research, the main goal of this dissertation was to improve the quality of e-learning, applying learning on the World Wide Web (WWW) as a specific scenario, by enhancing individuals’ deployment of SRL processes. As a first study, synthesizing past SRL research, a meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the relevance of SRL for the quality of learning, and to quantify the impact of SRL interventions on academic achievement. Another aim was to provide guidance for future SRL research by identifying features of SRL interventions that have proven to be effective as well as features that have lacked effectiveness and escaped attention in the past. Putting special effort into identifying unpublished dissertations in order to avoid a publication bias, a pool of 39 studies that reported 44 independent treatments was established. Applying a random effects model, a weighted mean effect of SRL interventions on academic performance of ΔˉGlass =.45 was determined. One-way moderator analyses identified peer-review status, research design, instance of delivery, and age of participants as influential variables. In further analyses, when combining heterogeneous categories of moderators to establish homogeneous subgroups, it was found that treatments focusing on the metacognitive and cognitive layers, strategy instructions, and interventions within a mathematical domain were most effective for young learners between the ages of 9 and 14. With regard to computer-based interventions, nonsignificant effects on performance were revealed. Aiming to improve the quality of e-learning, the author simultaneously developed a concept for providing SRL support. Following an indirect approach of assistance, the core of the concept was to optimize the learning environment by providing learners with scaffolds that served as tools that could be used to complete a learning task and that simultaneously induced the deployment of six metacognitive processes in the three cyclical phases of learning. Aiming to provide learners with more intensive guidance, an extended concept also included administering additional prompts. The sketched scaffolding concept was realized by implementing the Firefox extension E-Learning knoWledge Management System (ELWMS). The second study of this dissertation served to evaluate whether working with ELWMS enhanced the quality of the learning process and the learning outcome. Randomly assigned to four conditions, N = 64 participants learned on Wikipedia about Classical Antiquity for 45 min. The two experimental groups were equipped with the standard version of ELWMS, and were either free to apply the scaffolds of their own accord or received two additional prompts, whereas the two control groups worked with the standard version of Firefox. The quality of the learning process was evaluated by a self-developed context-specific SRL self-report questionnaire. In addition, participants’ overt actions were assessed by generating log data and by conducting qualitative analyses of screen recordings. The quality of the learning outcome was evaluated by a self-developed achievement test, applied as a pretest and a posttest, and by determining the quality of the created structure. Results revealed positive effects of the scaffolding concept on the quality of the learning process, and ambiguous effects of additional prompting. The third study of this dissertation served to provide further insight into the effectiveness of the sketched scaffolding concept with an elaborated study design. Equipped with the second generation of ELWMS, learners of experimental groups were either free to apply the scaffolds of their own accord or received additional intensive prompting of six processes that were considered to enhance achievement. To be able to generate comparable log data for all conditions, the control group worked with a downgraded version of ELWMS that did not provide metacognitive support. Before learning on Wikipedia about Classical Antiquity for 45 min, all N = 108 participants had to complete a web-based training on ELWMS. The quality of the learning process was evaluated by applying a revised context-specific SRL self-report questionnaire that was synchronized with an advanced and optimized method of collecting log data. In further qualitative analyses, logged overt actions were assigned a rating of relevance. The quality of the learning outcome was evaluated by a revised achievement test, applied as a pretest and a posttest, and by determining the quality of the created structure. In line with the second study, results revealed positive effects of the scaffolding concept on the quality of the learning process. This effect was enhanced by additional intensive prompting. In whole, this dissertation presents evidence that enhancing SRL improves the quality of learning and provides a path for creating effective SRL interventions. By applying a complex multimethod approach, it further proposes a promising concept for inducing SRL processes in e-learning. (shrink)