This paper asks a simple and yet extremely relevant question for scholars of religion: what is sacrifice? Rejecting monothetic definitions of sacrifice, I argue that the phenomenon must be understood as a polythetic class. In its two first sections, the paper discusses the evidence from African religions and Chinese religions, respectively. The last section is devoted to a comparative exercise through which I highlight the polythetic nature of sacrifice.

Das Buch widmet sich der wenig erörterten Frage nach dem Begriff der Macht in der Theologie und Philosophie des 20. Jahrhunderts. Ausgehend von Theorien bei Arendt, Foucault, Plessner und Jaspers wird der Blick auf die Ontologie der Macht bei Tillich eröffnet. Dabei wird dargestellt, wie er seinem Machtverständnis eine sinntheoretische Wendung gegeben und wie er seine Überlegungen zur Macht mit dem Begriff des Seins in Zusammenhang gebracht hat.

The author states that the very idea of human dignity lies in human relationships in the form of mutual recognition of one another. She emphasizes the ‘daily’ commitment to dignity as an essential feature of intersubjectivity and insists on the bodily dimension as the fundamental mode of relationships to the other. Thus human dignity is first of all the dignity of the body.

I'll say first why I write. It intrigues me, I wonder why I write. How it is that I write and why it's so important. I take this as an act of life. One thing that scares me as a writer is a Lari song “ndombi ku ndombi sadidi mukanda komanda diandi Matsoua Ndele.” That can be translated as “even a black can write, hey, things are progressing. “ In the beginning going to school was considered an enormous act, it (...) was civilization, it was the very center of civilization, and writing a letter for a black person, a poor black, was a grandiose thing. It was in Matsoua's time, in the forties, that people sang this song in the pool to make rubber. (shrink)

The newborn opens its eyes when it comes into the world. We close the eyes of the dead because they are no longer part of the world of the living. It is through looking that we enter the world, that we take possession of it, and that we leave it. We open or close our eyes to the living beings and things that surround us. Of prime importance among these living beings are other humans, who may resemble or be different (...) from us, but whose eyes also look. From this perspective, to live is to look at other people and at ourselves. Artists, particularly those who work with light and looking, such as painters, photographers, or film-makers, show us that art is above all seeing life: we look at the other who has been painted, photographed, or filmed. At the same time a photograph or painting of this other tells us who we are and what type of relationship we have with the world. For looking is never neutral. Every look, from wherever it comes, is imbued with culture. In art, looking is part of writing. But, when we look at others, how do we see them? Do we see them? The blind may have poor sight, yet, because they have bodies, sensibilities, minds, and other faculties that enable them to enter into relations with others, they have a way of looking. (shrink)

This paper provides a rich reconstruction of the notion of dignity and rights of people and individuals in its Assyrian origins in ancient Mesopotamia. It analysis several particular positions. Among them, Bardaisan, Yacoub Aphraates (Aphrahat), Michael the Syriac, as well as, much later, the missionary policy of the Eastern Church in Asia and the influential of the Nestorian church in Asia.

In the present work are identified the main features of the algebraic structure with respect to the logical operations, of the set of all the quantum mechanical utterances for which can be specified a factual counterpart and factual rules for truth valuation. This structure is found not to be a lattice. It depends crucially on the spacetime features of the operations by which the observer prepares the studied states and performs measurements on them.

: This essay considers the implications of President George W. Bush's proposal for human embryonic stem cell research. Through the perspective of patent law, privacy, and informed consent, we elucidate the ongoing controversy about the moral standing of human embryonic stem cells and their derivatives and consider how the inconsistencies in the president's proposal will affect clinical practice and research.

Anarchy and utopia have traditionally had a contentious relationship throughout the history of political thought. Although some anarchic thinkers have occasionally verged on the utopian genre – for instance, French anarchists Joseph Déjacque and Jean Grave, or anarcho-syndicalists Émile Pataud and Émile Pouget – the anarchic mindset has generally shown a deeply-rooted mistrust towards any representation of systematically planned ideal societies, often seen as intellectualist and fundamentally authoritarian projects.

Primeira Carta Prezado Padre Frei Bernardo: Com todo o respeito que devo demonstrar-vos devido aos méritos dos frades franciscanos, desejo apresentar nesta carta algumas dúvidas e mesmo, como parece a alguns, os absurdos evidentes - que parecem seguir-se de vossas afirmações. Com a solução de tais dúvidas espero que a mim e a outros se demonstre com mais clareza a verdade. Li em alguns textos que apresentastes na escola dos frades menores, e aos quais permitistes acesso a todo o verdadeiramente (...) interessado, as proposições que seguem: A primeira, colocada por vós nos Comentários às Sentenças, diz o seguinte: "O conhecimento intuitivo e claro é aquele pelo qual julgamos que uma coisa existe, independente do fato de ela existir ou não." A segunda proposição, colocada no mesmo lugar, afirma: "Na sentença: 'O objeto não existe, logo não é visto', não vale a consequência, como não vale também esta: 'Isto é visto, logo existe'. Ambas aliás são falsas, como o são estas: 'César está na mente, logo César existe; César não existe, logo não está na mente'." A terceira proposição, também no mesmo lugar, diz: "O conhecimento intuitivo não requer necessariamente a existência da coisa." Uma quarta proposição creio poder inferir destas três: "Toda a impressão que temos da existência de objetos exteriores pode ser falsa," pois, segundo vós, ele pode dar-se quer o objeto exista, quer não. (shrink)

Os escritos políticos de Ockham giram ao redor da pergunta a respeito do poder do papa. Como esse poder foi concedido por Cristo, deve-se consultar a Sagrada Escritura para saber o que ela diz a respeito. Mas a exegese bíblica cabe aos teólogos e não aos juristas. Na qualidade de teólogo Ockham afirma que os poderes do papa situam-se na ordem espiritual e mesmo nessa ordem ele não é ilimitado, pois se atém ao que foi concedido expressamente por Cristo e (...) deve respeitar a liberdade dos fiéis. PALAVRAS-CHAVE – Guilherme de Ockham. Exegese bíblica. Plenitude do poder. Poder. Liberdade. ABSTRACT The political writings of Ockham circle around the question regarding the power of the pope. As such power was conceded by Christ, one must consult the Holy Bible to know what It tells about such power. However, biblical exegesis belongs to the theologians, not to jurists. As a theologian, Ockham states that the powers of the pope are set in the spiritual order, and even in such an order they are not without limits, for they are conformed to what was expressly conceded by Christ and must respect the liberty of the followers. KEY WORDS – William of Ockham. Biblical exegesis. Plentitude of power. Power. Liberty. (shrink)

No presente artigo examina-se aposição do franciscano Pedro de João Olivi ante a Filosofia. Seu texto De perlegendisphilosophorum libris' serve de guia. Constata-seque a critica de Olivi não se volta para o uso emsi dos textos filosóficos pagãos, mas para o modocom que eles podem ser lidos e comentados nomundo cristão, ignorando a subordinação dosaber mundano à sabedoria da revelação.

Acerca dos contratos de compras e vendas.

A new integrated view on the probabilistic organization of quantum mechanics is constructed. It is then proved that for superposition state vectors the theoretical quantum mechanical distribution for the momentum observable is devoid of operational definition, and hence cannot be the source of conditions of compatibility to be imposed upon a researched joint probability concept. A compatible joint probability concept is outlined.

In previous works we have established that the spacetime probabilistic organization of the quantum theory is determined by the spacetime characteristics of the operations by which the observer produces the objects to be studied (“states” of microsystems) and obtains qualifications of these. Guided by this first conclusion, we have then built a “general syntax of relativized conceptualization” where any description is explicitly and systematically referred to the two basic epistemic operations by which the conceptor introduces the object to be qualified (...) and then obtains qualifications of it. Inside this syntax there emerges a general typology of the relativized descriptions. Here we show that with respect to this typology the type of the predictive quantum mechanical descriptions acquires a precise definition. It appears that the quantum mechanical formalism has captured and has expressed directly in a mathematical language the most complex form in which can occur a first descriptional phase that lies universally at the bottom of any chain of conceptualization. The main features of the Hilbert-Dirac algorithms are decoded in terms of the general syntax of relativized conceptualization. This renders explicit the semantical contents of the quantum mechanical representations relating each one of these to its mathematical quantum mechanical expression. Basic insufficiencies are thus identified and, correlatively, false problems as well as answers to these, or guides toward answers. Globally the results obtained provide a basis for future attempts at a general mathematical representation of the processes of conceptualization. “Il pourrait, en effet, être dangereux pour l'avenir de la Physique qu'elle se contente trop facilement de purs formalismes, d'images floues et d'explications toutes verbales s'exprimant par des mots à signification imprécise”—Louis de Broglie,Certitudes et Incertitudes de la Science (Albin Michel, Paris, 1965). (shrink)

Bell's theorem is believed to establish that the quantum mechanical predictions do not generally admit a causal representation compatible with Einsten's principle of separability, thereby proving incompatibility between quantum mechanics and relativity. This interpretation is contested via two convergent approaches which lead to a sharp distinction between quantum nonseparability and violation of Einstein's theory of relativity.In a first approach we explicate from the quantum mechanical formalism a concept of “reflected dependence.” Founded on this concept, we produce a causal representation of (...) the quantum mechanical probability measure involved in Bell's proof, which is clearly separable in Einstein's sense, i.e., it does not involve supraluminal velocities, and nevertheless is “nonlocal” in Bell's sense. So Bell locality and Einstein separability aredistinct qualifications, and Bell nonlocality (or Bell nonseparability) and Einstein separability arenot incompatible. It is then proved explicitly that with respect to the mentioned representation Bell's derivation does not hold. So Bell's derivation does notestablish thatany Einstein-separable representation is incompatible with quantum mechanics. This first—negative—conclusion is asyntactic fact.The characteristics of the representation and of the reasoning involved in the mentioned counterexample to the usual interpretation of Bell's theorem suggest that the representation used—notwithstanding its ability to bring forth the specified syntactic fact—isnot factually true. Factual truth and syntactic properties also have to be radically distinguished in their turn. So, in a second approach, starting from de Broglie's initial relativistic model of a microsystem, a deeper, factually acceptable representation is constructed. The analyses leading to this second representation show that quantum mechanics does indeed involve basically a certain sort of nonseparability, called here de Broglie-Bohr quantum nonseparability. But the de Broglie-Bohr quantum nonseparability is shown to stem directly from the relativistic character of the considerations which led Louis de Broglie to the fundamental relation p = h/λ,thereby being essentially consistent with relativity. As to Einstein separability, it appears to be a still insufficiently specified conceptof which a future, improved specification, will probably be explicitly harmonizable with the de Broglie-Bohr quantum nonseparability.The ensemble of the conclusions obtained here brings forth a new concept of causality, a concept offolded, zigzag, reflexive causality, with respect to which the type of causality conceived of up to now appears as aparticular case of outstretched, one-way causality. The reflexive causality is found compatible with the results of Aspect's experiment, and it suggests new experiments.Considered globally, the conclusions obtained in the present work might convert the conceptual situation created by Bell's proof into a process of unification of quantum mechanics and relativity. (shrink)

A general representation of the processesof conceptualization, founded upon adescriptional mould drawn from fundamentalquantum mechanics, is outlined. The approach iscalled the method of relativizedconceptualization. This stresses that therepresentation is not researched as a ``neutralstatement of facts'' but, from the start on, asa method subjected to definitedescriptional aims, namely an a prioriexclusion of the emergence of false problems orparadoxes and of any gliding into relativism.The method is characterized by an explicit andsystematic relativization of each descriptionalstep, to all the descriptional elementsinvolved in (...) this step, namely: the epistemicaction by which the object-entity is generated,the object-entity itself, and the epistemicaction by which the object-entity is qualified.Successive steps which complexify progressivelya given initial description, form an unlimitedchain of cells of conceptualization wherethe very first cell, necessarily, is rooted in as yet strictly unconceptualizedphysical factuality while the subsequent cellsconsist of increasingly abstract descriptionsthat are connected hierarchically. The chainsinteract at nodes where they branch, thusgenerating an indefinitely evolving,complexifying web of relativizedconceptualization, free of ambiguities, andwhere each element stays under control.The method contains the positedassertion of a realism of which a definite sortof minimality follows then inside themethod. This generates a clear distinctionbetween illusory qualifications of``how-a-physical-entity-is-in-itself'', and models of this physical entity. Thereby aworked out connection with philosophicalthinking is incorporated in the method. (shrink)

The purpose of this book is to initiate a new discipline, namely a formalized epistemological method drawn from the cognitive strategies practised in the most effective among the modern scientific disciplines, as well as from general philosophical thinking. Indeed, what is lacking in order to improve our knowledge and our domination of the modes which nowadays are available for the generation and communication of knowledge, thoroughly and rapidly and with precision and detail? It is a systematic explication of the epistemological (...) essence encrypted in the specialized languages and algorithms of the major modern scientific approaches, a systematic cross-referencing of the explicated results, and a final elaboration of a new coherent whole. Quantum mechanics, like a diver, can take us down to the level of the very first actions of our conceptualization of reality. And starting from there, it can induce an explicit understanding of certain fundamental features of the new scientific thinking. A formalized epistemology should not be mistaken for a crossdisciplinary or a multidisciplinary project. The latter projects are designed to offer to nonspecialists access to information, to results obtained inside specialized disciplines, as well as a certain understanding of these results; whereas a formalized epistemology should equip anyone with a framework for conceptualizing himself in whatever domain and direction he or she might choose. A formalized epistemology should not be mistaken either for an approach belonging to the modern cognitive sciences. These try to establish as neutrally as possible descriptions of how the human body-and-mind work spontaneously when knowledge is generated; whereas a method of conceptualization should establish what conceptual-operational deliberate procedures have to be applied in order to represent and to achieve processes of generation of knowledge optimized accordingly to any definite aims. This book addresses philosophers of science, physicists, mathematicians, logicians, computer scientists, researchers in cognitive sciences, and biologists, as well as any intellectual who is interested in scientific and philosophical thinking. (shrink)

The exact bearing of an important theorem proved by Wigner is established. The study brings out the fact that marginal conditions as well as mean conditions of a form currently required in joint probability attempts are in fact inadequate for the determination of a relevant concept of a joint probability. New vistas are thereby opened up.

In connection with my previous paper “Locality, Reflection, and Wave-Particle Duality” [Found. Phys. 17, 813 (1987)], in this paper I distinguish explicitly, in the locality problem, between assertions, deductively established results, interpretations, intuitions, and facts. This clarifies the structure of the problem.

No presente número, reservado à Filosofia Medieval, há uma linha que perpassa quase todos os textos: o da recepção do pensamento antigo pelos pensadores do medioevo cristão.

Os franciscanos dos séculos XIII e XIV contaram entre seus membros com filósofos de renome. Procura-se, no presente trabalho, ver até que ponto pode-se falar de uma 'escola franciscana Para tanto é tomado o período que medeia entre Boaventura e Ockham, sendo examinados alguns dos principais temas debatidos durante a época.

Este texto é um relato das publicações em filosofia medieval promovidas no Brasil pela Comissão Brasileira de Filosofia Medieval. O relato engloba as publicações de 1983 até 2000. Nestas publicações são encontrados estudos gerais e traduções, sobre temas tais como política, ontologia, lógica, antropologia, teologia filosófica e filosofia da linguagem. A maioria dos estudos se encontra em língua portuguesa. Além disso, o texto contém índices bastante úteis de nomes e de temas/autores.

Esta é uma entrevista com o ex-presidente da SIEPM. O Prof. Zimmermann relata de modo biográfico acerca dos seus estudos em filosofia medieval e comenta a situação da pesquisa nesta área da filosofia. Ele também revela as suas impressões sobre o crescimento de interesse na filosofia medieval na América Latina.

Em seus tratados teológicos, ospensadores medievais defrontaram-se com apergunta a respeito do homem, como ser criado,como capaz de conhecer, de praticar o bem ou omal etc. e, com isto, elaboraram uma Antropologia.Dentre eles, Duns Scotus, mantendo-se fiel acertos temas caros à escola franciscana, caracteriza-se por haver seguido caminhos surpreendentementenovos. No presente texto, doisaspectos da Antropologia scotista são estudados.Em primeiro lugar, a noção de matéria e forma.Discordando da teoria aristotélico-tomista, eleacentua a realidade específica da matéria, cujaexistência, sem a forma, não pode (...) resumir-se àpura potencialidade. Redefinindo o que é amatéria, ele redefine também as relações entrealma e corpo. Em segundo lugar, e reservandobem maior espaço, a questão da vontade comopotência livre, que se determina a si mesma. (shrink)

This article analyzes the institutional patterns of eight young democracies in Asia. The analysis originates from Lijphart's majoritarian-consensus framework. It illustrates that neither Lijphart's two-dimensional democracy pattern, nor an alternative pattern exists in Asia. Instead, the review of possible causes for the lack of conformity between Lijphart's patterns of democracy and the reality of the situation in Asia support the criticism in existing research literature regarding some of Lijphart's main assumptions and major conclusions. Furthermore, Asian realities provide only partial support (...) for Lijphart's advice that the consensus option is the more attractive option for countries that designed their first democratic constitutions. (shrink)