Bu çalışmanın amacı Martin Buber etiğinin özgünlüğünü keşfetmek ve geliştirmektir. Buber varlığı ilişki temelinde ele alarak Ben-O ve Ben-Sen ilişkisi olarak ayırmıştır. Ben-O ilişkisi insanın varlıkla sıradan tecrübesine karşılık gelirken, Ben-Sen ilişkisi insanın ötekiyle diyalog kurduğu anda ortaya çıkan daha derin bir ilişkidir. Ötekiyle ilişki; tüm etik değerlendirmeleri içinde barındıran, yaşamın dinamizmine uygun, insanlık tarihinin mitolojik ve etik dinamiklerini de içeren bir ilişkinin temellerini içermektedir. Ben-Sen ilişkisi yalnızca insanın insanlarla kurduğu bir ilişkiyi değil insanın canlı, cansız ve manevi tüm varlıklarla (...) kurduğu ilişkiyi açıklamaktadır. Ben-Sen ilişkisinin sadece insanın insanla olan ilişkiyi ele almaması etik üzerine yapılan çalışmalara yeni bir bakış sağlayacak niteliktedir. Buber’in etik anlayışı; diyalog etiği, ötekiyle ilişki etiği, durum etiği, antropolojik etik, varoluş etiği, meslek etiği, anarşist etik, postmodern etik gibi birçok etik anlayışla bağlantılıdır. Buber herhangi bir ahlaki norm ve etik koda bağlı olmayan, tarihsel, ontolojik ve ilişkiyi öncül kılan geniş çaplı içeriğe sahip bir etiğin temellerini ortaya koymaktadır. (shrink)

Her felsefi kongre zorunlu olarak politik bir öneme sahiptir. Bu, yalnızca felsefenin özünü her zaman politik olanın özüne bağlayan bir şey yüzünden değildir. Temel ve genel olarak, bu politik ima ona [felsefe ve politika arasındaki a priori ilişkiye] ağırlık katıyor, onu daha ciddi kılıyor ve özellikle felsefi kongre aynı zamanda uluslararası bir kongre olduğunda onun ayırıcı özelliğini de belirliyor. Uluslararası bir felsefe konferansı olasılığı sınırsız bir biçimde, farklı çizgilerle birlikte ve genelliğin birçok düzeyinde araştırılabilir. En genel anlamında böyle bir olasılık, (...) felsefenin özüne aykırı olarak, ulusal felsefelerin oluşturulduğu anlamına gelir. Belirli bir anda, belirli tarihsel, politik ve ekonomik bağlamda, bu ulusal gruplar, uluslararası toplantılar düzenlemeyi, ulusal kimlikleriyle temsil edilmeyi ve burada kendi farklılıklarını belirlemeyi ya da ilişkilendirmeyi zorunlu görmüştür. Bu tür bir farklılıklar toplantısı, bir dereceye kadar sadece öğretisel bağlam veya belli bir felsefi “üslup” tarafından tanımlanan ulusal felsefi kimliklerin öngörülmüş olduğu durumlarda gerçekleşebilir. Ancak, farklılıkların ilişkilendirilmesi de ortak bir unsuru öngörür: bir toplantı ancak tüm katılımcıların paylaştığı, bu durumda felsefi söylemin evrenselliği denilen ortak bir imge ile gerçekleşebilir. Bu kelimelerle, özüyle belirli bir dil grubu ve “kültürler” ile özdeşleştirilen bir projeden daha az bir olgu belirledim. Zira açıktır ki, bu unsurun şeffaflığının başına bir şey gelmiştir. (shrink)

Bu çalışmada Türkiye’de ḳırâât tedrisatında istifade edilen mesleklerden biri olan ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğine ait tercihlerin mahiyeti, Muḥammed ʿÂrif el-Ḥıfẓî’nin Muġni’l-ḳurrâʾ fî şerḥi Muḫtâri’l-iḳrâʾ adlı eseri özelinde ve el-ʿaşru’s-suğrâ programının sınırları içerisinde ortaya konulmuştur. Osmanlı coğrafyasında teşekkül eden ve Anadolu’ya özgü olan ḳırâât meslekleri, ḳırâât tedrisatında günümüze kadar varlığını sürdüregelmiştir. Bu meslekler, taḥrîrât ekolü mesabesinde olmasına rağmen Anadolu toprakları dışında neredeyse bilinmeyen, tanınmayan ve kendisine ḳırâât eğitim-öğretiminde yer verilmeyen bir terminoloji olarak günümüze kadar gelmiştir. Mamafih, söz konusu mesleklerden biri olan ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğinden (...) ḳırâât tedrisatında günümüze değin yararlanılmasına rağmen bununla ilgili yeteri düzeyde akademik çalışmanın yapılmadığı müşahede edilmiştir. Nitekim ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğiyle alakalı iki çalışma tespit edilebilmiştir. Bunlardan biri doktora diğeri ise yüksek lisans tez araştırmalarıdır. Bunun dışında mesleklere genel olarak temas edilen ve “Kırâat Eğitiminin Dünü, Bugünü, Yarını ve Kırâat Eğitiminde Meslekler” adıyla kitap bölümü olarak basılan bir çalışma ve mesleklere bir bölüm ayrılan Kıraat İlmi Eğitim ve Öğretim Metotları adlı araştırmalar da mevcuttur. Bahsedilen bu ilmi faaliyetlerden Ahmed er-Rüşdî ve Mürşidü’t-Talebe Adlı Eserinin Kıraat İlmindeki Yeri adlı eser dışında, meslek tercihlerinin mahiyetinin ortaya konduğu bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. Ancak söz konusu çalışma, ekseriyetle Ataullah mesleğinin el-ʿaşru’l-kubrâ öğretiminde temel kaynak olarak kabul edilen Murşidu’ṭ-Ṭalebe’ye, bu eserin münderecatındaki vecîh ve tercihlerin tahliline yönelik olarak ele alınmıştır. Dolayısıyla açıklamaya çalıştığımız mevcut boşluğu doldurması beklenen bu çalışmada ise aşere/el-ʿaşru’s-suğrâ öğretiminde ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleği için temel kaynak olarak kabul edilen Muġni’l-ḳurrâʾda geçen vecîhler ele alınmış ve bunlara ait tercihlerin mahiyeti, uṣûl ve ferşu’l-ḥurûfla alakalı örnekler eşliğinde ortaya konulmuştur. Bu bağlamda çalışmanın temel amacı, ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğiyle ilgili tercihlerin arka planının Muḥammed ʿÂrif el-Ḥıfẓî’nin Muġni’l-ḳurrâʾ fî şerḥi Muḫtâri’l-iḳrâʾ adlı eseri özelinde izah edilmesidir. Nitekim mezkûr mesleğe ait tercihlerin keyfiyeti, el-ʿaşru’ṣ-ṣuġrâ müfredatının temel kaynakları olan et-Teysîr fi’l-ḳırââti’s-sebʿ ile Ḥirzu’l-emânî ve vechu’t-tehânî fi’l-ḳırââti’s-sebʿ adlı eserler ışığı altında açıklığa kavuşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu eserlere ek olarak ḳırâât alan yazınının temel eserlerinden de istifade yoluna gidilerek ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğine ait tercihlerin ilgili eserlerdeki yeri ve bu tercihlerin sebepleri izah edilmiştir. Bu bağlamda Muġni’l-Ḳurrâʾ özelinde verilen örneklerin hepsinde mervî vecîhlerin tamamının ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğinde tercih edildiği tespit edilmiş; fakat bunlardan -son örnek hariç olmak üzere- Şâṭıbî’nin kendi usulüne muhalefet ettiği ifade edilen vecîhlerin ise son örnek dışında muaḫḫar vecîh olarak zikredildiği görülmüştür. Ne var ki çalışmada yer verilen son örnekte ise ṭarîḳ muhalefeti söz konusu olmasına rağmen muḫâṭab vechinin ġāib vechine muḳaddem olarak tercih edildiği müşahede edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte ilgili örneklerde Îtilâf, Mutḳin ve Ṣûfî meslekleri tarafından icra edilen vecîhlerin genellikle birbirine mutabık olduğu ve onların bu vecîhlerde ʿAṭâʾullâh mesleğinden ayrıştıkları belirlenmiştir. (shrink)

This study deals with al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī’s conception of morality, how he bases this conception on hadiths and how he interprets hadiths according to his own Sufi disposition. al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī is one of the foremost Sufis who resorted to the Qur'an and the Sunnah to prove his views on the issues of Sufism and morality. The study aims to analyze his handling of hadiths and the way he resorted to hadiths while grounding moral issues within the framework of his work Nawādir (...) al-Uṣūl. The study reveals that al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī revealed the theoretical framework of the moral issue, determined the relationship between morality and related concepts such as wisdom and ingenuity, and read the hadiths with a moral perspective. In addition, it was concluded that al-Ḥakīm, who deals with the issue of morality from a different perspective, deals with and evaluates different issues that are frequently discussed in works of ethics and touches on the issue of practical ethics. Therefore, we can say that it represents a clear trend in the issue of ethics. However, it should be pointed out that he never touched the authenticity of the hadiths. (shrink)

Organizational cronyism refers to favoring some employees within an organization based on non-performance-related factors. Although it is highly likely to encounter many attitudes and behaviors meeting this description within public and private institutions, there are limited studies on this issue. Thus, the purpose of this study is to develop a valid and reliable scale to assess the perception of cronyism among organizational members. To this end, an item pool was formed based on current literature as well the views of teachers (...) and expert recommendations. The validity–reliability of the scale was tested via two sample groups. As a result of the study, a scale with 3 dimensions and 15 items as well as psychometric qualities was developed to assess employee perceptions of cronyism. The scale dimensions comprise: in-group bias, paternal cronyism, and reciprocal exchange of favor in accordance with the way the method was addressed in the literature. The analyses of nomological validity of the scale showed that perception of cronyism is an important predictor of trust in managers. (shrink)

İbn Hacer’in Nuhbetü’l-Fiker ’i ve onun şerhi olan Nüzhetü’n-Nazar ’ının, kendisinden sonra yazılan hadis usûlü eserlerine kaynaklık etmesi ve onları etkilemesi açısından usûl tarihinde önemli bir yeri vardır. Nitekim mezkûr eserler üzerine yapılan şerh ve hâşiye çalışmalarının çokluğu bu önemi ortaya koymaktadır. Fıkıh ve hadis başta olmak üzere çeşitli ilim dallarında 100’ün üzerinde eser kaleme alan ve aynı zamanda İbn Hacer’in de talebelerinden olan Kasım b. Kutluboğa da bahsedilen eser üzerine çalışma yapan âlimlerden biridir. İbn Kutluboğa, hocası İbn Hacer’i birçok (...) yönden eleştirmiş ve çeşitli katkılarda bulunmuştur. Bu makalede İbn Kutluboğa’nın Nüzhetü’n-Nazar üzerine yazdığı Hâşiyetü İbn Kutluboğa adlı eserindeki itirazlar bağlamında kısaca red/itiraz kültüründen bahsedilerek örnekler ortaya konulacak ve mezkûr itirazlar esere hâşiye yazan ilgili bazı âlimlerin görüşleri çerçevesinde değerlendirilecektir. Ele alınan itirazlardan da anlaşılacağı üzere İbn Kutluboğa’nın polemik türü ve muhatabını ilzam edici itirazlarının neredeyse olmadığı ve yönelttiği kimi eleştirilerinde hadis usûlünde bilinen kurallardan farklı görüşler ortaya koyduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca İbn Kutluboğa’nın öne sürdüğü her itirazında isabetli yorumlar ortaya koymadığını da söylemek mümkündür. (shrink)

One of the processes that Zaydism, as a sect that has survived to the present day, went through in the Yemen region is the period that began with Mansûr-Billâh Qasim b. Muhammad, who declared his imamate in the 16th century and continued by the descendants of the ruling class until the declaration of the Republic. However, there is not enough information in the literature about this period, which is known as the Kasimi’s era. Mansûr-Billâh Qasim b. Muhammad has many works (...) on akaid, tafsir, method, islamic law, and in addition, there is a small pamphlet (risalah) written by him. This study aims to introduce the translation of the will written by Mansûr-Billâh Qasim b. Muhammad, who is known as the founder of the Kasimi dynasty, for his son Muayyad-Billâh Muhammad b. Kasım into the literature. (shrink)

COVID‐19, caused by a novel coronavirus named SARS‐CoV‐2, was identified in December 2019, in Wuhan, China. It was first confirmed in sub‐Saharan Africa in Nigeria on 27 February 2020 and has since spread quickly to all sub‐Saharan African countries, causing more than 111,309 confirmed cases and 2,498 deaths as of 03 June 2020. The lessons learned during the recent Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreaks in some sub‐Saharan African countries were expected to shape and influence the region’s responses to COVID‐19 pandemic. (...) However, some of the challenges associated with the management of the EVD outbreaks persist and create obstacles for the effective management of the COVID‐19 pandemic. This article describes the commonalities between the EVD epidemics and COVID‐19 pandemic, with a view to draw on lessons learned to effectively tackle the ongoing pandemic. Key successes, failures and lessons learned from previous EVD outbreaks are discussed. Recommendations on how these lessons can be translated to strengthen the COVID‐19 response in sub‐Saharan Africa are provided. (shrink)

I read with great bewilderment the unconvincing arguments of Peter F. Omonzejele in his article “Ethical Challenges Posed by the Ebola Virus Epidemic in West Africa” published in the 11 issue of the Journal of Bioethical Inquiry. While the author glaringly mixed up anthropological issues concerning the hygiene of hand-washing and safe burials in an article with a title clearly focused on ethical challenges, he failed to establish how the current Ebola epidemic ravaging some West Africa countries made these human (...) practices ethical challenges. Anecdotal examples cited in the article fit entirely into the realm of anthropological and sociological issues fuelling the spread of Ebola but are not in any way related to ethical challenges. The title was either misleading or the author deliberately discussed anthropological/sociological issues tangentially in an article supposedly written on ethical issues.The author also contradicted himself, having categorized as a compelling need t .. (shrink)

According to Islamic law, there are rules and prohibitions that Muslims must follow in their actions and transactions. The prohibition of interest has been decisive in many actions, especially in debt. Accordingly, Muslims cannot put forward a condition of interest in their debt, nor can they take any transactions under this condition. Many jurists viewed interest not only as an excess of the debt but also as any benefit that the creditor would receive from the debtor other than the amount (...) of the loan, and they evaluated it within the scope of interest. Since the lender of “qard”, which is generally used to define the debt, should not receive anything in return and should expect its reward from Allah, this was called “qard al-hasen”, quoting the relevant verses of the Qur’an, and Muslims tried to meet their credit needs through qard al-hasen. However, in some cases, people had difficulty obtaining the credit they needed, and especially in the modern period, the need for credit has increased both individually and institutionally. Therefore, Muslims tried to meet their need for qard by resorting to different ways within the limits of the Shariʽah. While applications based on transactions such as sukuk, mudaraba and murabaha and those based on intermediary transactions such as the purchase and sale of goods or partnerships were developed, applications based on direct debt without resorting to such transactions remained almost non-existent. However, from the expressions in the books of classical fiqh, it is understood that the juʽalah, which is defined as “promising a reward in return for an action”, can be used for obtaining qard under certain conditions. In this type of juʽalah, which can be named as juʽalah ala al-iqtirad, a person in need of qard promises a certain reward from third parties to the person who provides him qard. Considering that there is a qard in question in this transaction and that the debtor pays more than the qard he has received, it is necessary to examine the opinions about this transaction's relationship with interest and its validity. The main focus of the research will be answers to questions such as the conditions that the aforementioned juʽalah transaction must meet to be valid, in what ways this transaction differs from interest-bearing transactions, and within which limits. (shrink)

İnsanın hal ve hareketleri onun nasıl bir karaktere sahip olduğunu dışa yansıtmaktadır. Bu yüzden hal ve hareketler kişiyi tanımamızda yardımcı olur. Yüce Allah, Kurʹân-ı Kerim’de ashâbü’l-yemîn ve ashâbü’l-meymene gibi ifadeler kullanmış ve bu ifadelerle bir takım insanları kast etmiştir. Kastedilen iyi insanların vasıfları bu ifadelerden hemen sonra zikredilmiştir. Bu da Allah’ın sağ tarafa önem atfettiğinin göstergelerindendir. Hal ve hareketleri bakımından sevilen Hz. Peygamber, Müslümanlar için örnek kabul edilmiş ve onun emir ve tavsiyeleri harfiyen uygulanmaya hassasiyet gösterilmiştir. O, sağ taraf ile (...) faziletli ve hayırlı işleri, sol taraf ile de nahoş olan fiilleri yapmış ve bunu teşvik etmiştir. Sahâbe de bunu hem uygulamış hem de sonraki nesillere aktarmaya azami gayret göstermiştir. Daha sonra onun bu yöndeki tavsiye ve uygulamaları fıkıh âlimleri arasında kural haline gelmiştir. Hz. Peygamber’in sağ tarafla ilgili sözleri, uygulamaları ve tavsiyeleri hadisler vasıtasıyla bize aktarılmıştır. Böylece günlük hayatta başta olmak üzere ibadetlerde sağ tarafa ehemmiyet göstermiştir. Bu çalışmada Hz. Peygamber’in sağ tarafı önemsemesinin ve sağ tarafa öncelik vermesinin, beşerî ya da nebevî olup olmaması tartışmasına değinilecektir. Daha sonra Arapça iki kavram olan yemîn ve yesâr kavramlarının tarifi ele alınacak, abdest alırken sağ el ve ayakların önce yıkanmasının, tek kişinin imamın hangi tarafında durmasının ve teşehütte otururken sağ el ve sağ ayağın konumunun hükmü gibi konuların hükmüne işaret edilecektir. (shrink)

Muslim communities in principally non-Muslim nation states (e.g. South Africa, United States of America, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands) established a plethora of Muslim theological institutions. They have done so with the purpose of educating and reinforcing their Muslim identity. These educational structures have given rise to numerous questions that one encounters as one explores the rationale for their formation. Some are: have these institutions contributed towards the growth of Muslim extremism as argued by American and European Think Tanks? (...) If so, then in which and why did they do so? If not, then why have they been falsely accused, and how should Muslims counter these erroneous criticisms? And, more importantly, have some of these educational institutions—as agents of ‘social change’—contributed towards the ‘common good’ of the society? In response, the article attempts to investigate the reasons for the formation of these Muslim educational institutions within a broad Southern Africa democratic context. It prefaces the discussion by first constructing ‘social change’ as a viable theoretical frame and it thereafter places the madrasas and Dar ul-‘Ulums within the mentioned context prior to reflecting upon the notion of the ‘common good.’ It then proceeds by making reference to the Dar ul-‘Ulum curriculum that plays a significant role in shaping and moulding the theologians’ thinking and behaviour. It concludes by questioning to what extent the type of theological curriculum that they constructed assists them to contribute towards the ‘common good’ of Southern Africa’ societies. (shrink)

One of the new and interesting topics of the economic literature is middleincome trap. Middle-income trap can be generally defined as middle-income countries showing a slow growth performance, jamming at a certain level of income and can not pass to high income groups. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the E7 (Emerging 7) countries, which have an important place among the developing countries, are in middle-income trap. In this context, Robertson and Ye (2013) approach has been taken (...) into consideration. Empirical analyzes were performed using single and two structural breaks unit root tests. As a result of the analysis, evidence has been obtained that Indonesia, Mexico and Russia that member of E-7 groups, are in the middle-income trap. Brazil, China, India and Turkey are not generally in the middle-income trap. (shrink)

In history, many conflicts have occurred in understanding and interpretation of the verses of the Qur'an. When details come up and when the opinions about the content of the subject are put forward, more conflicts occur in the interpretation of a verse even when it seems to be clear a first glance. Facts such as to whom the verse addresses, who is meant by the verse, in which time the verse has been descended and the situations revealed by the verse, (...) whether it has the same validity for everyone causes the deepening of the difference. While these conflicts sometimes bring diversity in interpretation, sometimes there may be opinions that cannot be reconciled with each other, which are quite disconnected from each other and reject each other radically. In the interpretation of the verse “There is None of You Who Will Not Pass Over It”, many different views have been put forward about who is meant in the verse, what the nature of the entry into hell is and who is within the scope of this verse. In the integrity of the Qur'an, the commentators have resorted to some evidence to solve the issue of how to locate the interpretation of this verse. Some said that this verse was only directed towards the disbelievers. Some have said that this verse is covering everyone, but the entry of believers to hell is a temporary entry and does not have the purpose of punishment. This study aims to reveal the conflicts that have arisen about the interpretation of the verse “There is None of You Who Will Not Pass Over It” (Wa In Minkum İllā Wāriduhā) and to evaluate these conflicts in the context of the semantic analysis of the verb w-r-d. Therefore, first of all, the etymological structure of the verb w-r-d was examined and the dictionary meaning of the word was revealed. Then, in order to determine the meaning of this word before the revelation, the meanings of this verb root in the poems of Jahiliyyah were tried to be determined. Then, the places where this verb stem is used in the Qurʾān are examined and the meanings in the contexts are pointed out. As the next step, the disagreements that have come up to date regarding the interpretation of the verse “There is None of You Who Will Not Pass Over” have been put forward. These conflicts have been addressed by frequently applying to the classical and modern tafsīr studies written until today, starting from the tafsir narrations from the first interlocutors of the Qurʾān. Further, these conflicts have been tried to be presented by classifying them within themselves. Subsequently, it has been tried to contribute to the interpretation of the verse by considering the data obtained from the semantic analysis of the verb w-r-d. Finally, the issue of why this verb root was preferred in this verse, which mentions that all people will go to hell without exception, has been discussed. (shrink)

In the Qurʾān, it is mentioned that those who disbelieve insist on not believing by putting forward various excuses. One of them is that deniers attribute polytheism to Allah’s wish. When those who disbelieve are asked why they do not believe, they argue that they cannot deny unless Allah wills. On the other hand, expressions in line with the words spoken by the polytheists in the Qurʾān are also attributed to Allah. Such a paradoxical appearance between the verses requires a (...) detailed examination of the subject. In this study, the reasons for using these expressions by the deniers and the historical contexts of the verses will be examined. In addition, we will talk about the discussion of whether the expressions that bind polytheism to the wish of God are absolutely correct, since the subject is related to the wish. Because the interpretation of the verses varies according to both views. In addition to this, whether the deniers are sincere in these words is an element that affects the interpretation. Ahl al-Sunna scholars argue that this proposition is absolutely correct and that the deniers say this sentence with a mocking attitude. On the other hand, Muʿtazilī scholars are of the opinion that the proposition is absolutely wrong and that the deniers say this word with conviction. In addition, while Muʿtazilī scholars think that the nature of the Allah’s wish in both verses is different; Ahl Sunna scholars think that both are the same. Although it seems at first glance that the disbelievers attribute their denial to the legacy of Allah is an attitude that mocks them and believes that Allah is pleased with them, in reality, this is because they deny fate and turn to coercion and do not believe in prophethood and the Hereafter. Because, saying “If Allah willed, we would not associate” is based on the conviction that Allah gave consent to this belief they inherited from their ancestors and left them in accordance with their current beliefs. Devotion to ancestors is not necessarily a bad thing. However, if loyalty to ancestors is through prophethood, it leads to a true faith and ensures that faith is transferred to the next generations in a healthy way. On the other hand, if traditional practices in the name of religion turn into a practice that is against the spirit of the religion after a while, devotion to ancestors becomes an element that leads to denial. The fact that their ancestors lived a very prosperous life in the world even though they also had this belief reveals that they did not believe in the hereafter. Because, according to their opinion, if their ancestors had not been on the right path, God should have punished them in this world. Another reason why they attribute their denial to the legacy of Allah is their lack of belief in prophethood. Because, according to them, prophethood does not have an effect, nor it is necessary, for their faith, which depends only on the legacy of Allah. The most important factor that determines whether the propositions in the verses we examined are correct is the context of the sentence and the intention of the people using the proposition. In other words, the meaning and value of attributing denial to Allah’s wish differs according to the addressee. Because one can mean the falsehood with a true word. The same expression used in different contexts used for this may also be false, due to the difference in context and purpose. As pointed out in verse 148 of Surat al-An’am, a person who has the ability and power to believe, abandon polytheism and rebellion, ignoring this opportunity and power given by Allah and implying that he is pleased with a deed that Allah is not pleased with like idolatry. “If Allah willed, we would not associate idolatry” is a false sentence and false claim that is expressed in the verse. On the other hand, as pointed out in verse 107 of the Surat al-An’am and verse 99 of Surat Yunus, our Prophet who is desperate in the current situation and who has an extreme sense of responsibility because they do not believe, consoled our Prophet that his only duty was to convey the truth to the deniers with the statement “If Allah so willed, they would not have converted to Islam” and “If Allah willed, all those on earth would have believed,” indicating that he allowed them to practice idolatry as a requirement of the test and that he did not force people to believe, in order to state that he is not a guardian and that he should not force them to believe. Therefore, each different situation points to a different dimension of the truth about God’s legitimacy. (shrink)

It is stated in the Qur'an that there will be punishments and rewards for the deeds done. In addition, some details about the punishments and rewards to be given are given. While talking about punishment and reward, another issue that the Qur'an mentions is the issue of doubling of deeds. When the Qur'an is examined, two, ten, and seven hundred numbers are encountered as the coefficients for good deeds. As the coefficient that bad deeds will be doubled, either a solid (...) or a double expression is encountered. In our study, we will try to determine the reasons for using the expression tenfold, how it is interpreted that a good deed is rewarded tenfold, and the place of tenfold reward in the interpretation of the verses about giving the reward of a good deed. In addition to these, we will touch on the differences in interpretation that have emerged about the interpretation of this verse. The claim that it would be unjust to connect the subject with the subject of ru’yatullah and to give an absolute tenfold reward for each deed gives a different dimension to the difference in interpretation. In other words, there are conflicts that can be considered as a richness of interpretation, and there is a conflict in which theological principles are decisive. The fact that the issue of giving tenfold reward is handled in the context of between justice and the distinction sawāb-lutf shows that the theological paradigm difference is decisive in this conflict. In our study, we will deal with the issue that good deeds will be rewarded tenfold, both in terms of nature and problematic. The problematic aspect of this issue is which part of the tenfold reward is deserved and which part is the grace of God, and the difference in the nature of these two. In addition, the question of whether the additional rewards that will be given to the servants can be interpreted as seeing Allah instead of tenfold reward is the problematic aspect of our study. (shrink)

Despite the hadiths and narratives that warn about the interpretation of the Qur’ān by opinion, the question of how Qur’ānic verses can be understood is about the nature of Qur’ānic exegesis. These narratives, which limit the interpretation to the exact field and indicate the invalidity of the specification of the intention with the imprecise information, bring with it the question of how to understand the Qur’ān in each period and society. The issue that has been questioned in the frame of (...) the commentary from the earliest periods is based on the possibility of commenting besides the narration and defining the area that the thought belongs to the commentator. In this context, it is seen that the distinction between the conceptualization of tafsīr-taʾwīl words in classical commentary literature deals with the subject of the tafsīr, their belongings, epistemological values and contexts. Mainly, this study will question whether authors who do not distinguish between tafsīr-taʾwīl categorize the information about commentary in a different context, then it will analyze two basic approaches on tafsīr and taʾwīl. In the paper, it will be suggested that these classifications in the classical literature should be evaluated together within the framework of the search for methodology in exegesis. Summary: The Prophet, who was the first glossator of the Qur’ān, forbade people to talk about the Qur’ān with their own judgments. The prominent people of the companions refused to comment on some words that were closed in meaning (garīb). The words quoted from Abū Bakr and ʿUmar on this subject are quite famous. However, the Qur’ān is a universal book revealed to be understood in all ages and geographies till the doomsday. The fact that all the verses were not interpreted by the Prophet, and the expansions of meaning observed in the Qur’ān wording necessitate the interpretation of the Qur’ān. The fact that the Prophet forbade people to talk with their own judgments about the Qur’ān and the necessity of understanding the Qur’ān in every era constitutes a dilemma that must be explained. The resolution of this issue will both determine the legitimacy of tafsīr (interpretation) and reveal the difference between the Prophet's tafsīr and the tafsīrs by other people. In this context, a distinction was made between the interpretations of the Prophet and of the companions who witnessed the revelation period from the Tabarī (d. 310/923) in the classical tafsīr literature and the interpretations by glossators in terms of their bindingness and information values. Thus, before even starting the interpretation, glossators questioned the possibility of interpretation of the Qur’ān without the tafsīr of the Prophet and the narratives from the companions that have the force of hadith marfūʿ.It is seen in classical tafsīr literature that distinctions between the tafsīr of the Prophet and the interpretations of the glossator are usually constructed on the terms of tafsīr and ta'wil, to which terminological meanings are attributed. In this regard, the methodology of Māturīdī (d. 333/944) is quite specific and clear. According to Māturīdī, tafsīr is an exact field. Only the tafsīr of the Prophet and the narratives of the companions that have the force of marfūʿ can be included in this field. Taʾwīl, on the other hand, is an area based on supposing. Preferences to be made from possible meanings are supposition and related to taʾwīl. The fact that Māturīdī included the explanations of the Prophet and his companions in the tafsīr field and stated that they expressed exact information shows that he regarded this information in the value of the statement of mutakallim. The data included in the field of taʾwīl are not as the data included in the field of tafsīr in terms of their bindingness and information value. The interpretations made in the field of taʾwīl include supposition; so they cannot be attributed to the desire of God. The field that the Prophet forbade people from declaring their own views is the field of tafsīr in the methodology of Māturīdī. The exactness of this field is an indication that the tafsīr is related to God's desire. It is not right to declare an opinion with supposition in the field that is exact and definite. Even though the interpretation in the field of tafsīr is in accordance with the truth, this cannot eliminate the responsibility of the interpreter that make determinations based on supposition in the exact and definite field. Some scholars, such as Qushayrī (d. 465/1072), also classify the narrative-sagacity areas by means of tafsīr-taʾwīl concepts. This classification deals with the data that is the subject of tafsīr in terms of their belongingness. Indeed, tafsīr science includes both the data that are linked with transmission and non-transmittable elements that can be achieved by following a methodology. Non-transmittable elements included in the taʾwīl field by those who make a distinction between tafsīr and taʾwīl based on narrative-sagacity are the meanings reached through linguistic efforts. Language is an element that holds possibilities in itself. Considering closeness of meaning, multi-meanings, metaphors and allusions in the wording, it can be thought that the meanings reached by linguistic methods include supposition. In the methodology of Māturīdī, the field of tafsīr is composed of the explanations of the Prophet and the narratives of the companions who witnessed the revelations while in the classifications of those who make a distinction between tafsīr and taʾwīl based on narrative-sagacity, tafsīr generally includes narratives. When the issue is handled within the framework of the desire of God and the statements of the mutakallim, it seems that the classification of Māturīdī is more punctual. However, it is understood that this approach does not give a satisfactory answer to the subsequent situations and bindingness of the mentioned data. In the classifications based on narrative-sagacity, the narratives in the field of tafsīr are taken as a whole without analyzing their health grades and their signification. However, some of these narrations are not authentic; so, in this respect it is a problematic issue that they are the subjects of the field of tafsīr. Besides, sometimes there can be different narrations about the tafsīr of verses from the companions. The evaluation these narratives in a field attributed to the desire of God may also pose a problem. The linguistic data that both Māturīdī and those who make a distinction between tafsīr and taʾwīl based on narrative-sagacity include in the field of taʾwīl does not appear to have a homogeneous structure -as is the case with the narratives-. Indeed, among this data, there are elements whose meanings are quite hard to determine as well as firm ones that possibly have only one meaning. It is controversial that these expressions, which have only one meaning and to the validity of whose meaning other evidence point out are included in the field of taʾwīl.The distinction between meaning and interpretation fields in tafsīr is very important in terms of tafsīr methodology. This field designation is in a way a description of nature of the science of tafsīr. Thus, in matters where the human intelligence remains insufficient with the tafsīr narratives from the Prophet, the bindingness of the narratives from the companions are clarified; furthermore, beyond the narrative, the validity and the information values of interpretations of the glossator are determined. In this regard, the tafsīr-taʾwīl distinctions made in the classical tafsīr literature provide us with a rich content and a multifaceted point of view. However, when addressed separately, these distinctions present a number of problems in terms of scope and applicability. Our study proposes the evaluation of tafsīr-taʾwīl distinctions in classical literature together while the meaning-interpretation fields are specified in the framework of the search for methodology in tafsīr. Thus, the incomplete aspects of the classification will be eliminated and a much more comprehensive and functional classification will be achieved. At this point, the methodologies of some figures as Tabarī, who is known to have used the terms of tafsīr and taʾwīl in the same meaning, must also be evaluated separately. Indeed, when the works of these names are analyzed, it is seen that these names also distinguish the meaning-interpretation fields in tafsīr, but they do not do this through the tafsīr-taʾwīl concepts. (shrink)

In the field of ʿUlūm al-Qurʾān, in which the conceptual framework of the science of interpretation is drawn and the main rules used in tafsīr are discussed, independent books have been compiled since early periods. Some of these works stand out as foundational texts because they make important determinations about the nature, function, methodology, and relationship of the science of tafsīr with other Islamic sciences. The masterpiece entitled Fahm al-Qurʾān by al-Khāris al-Muhāsibī, a scholar of sufism, tafsīr, kalām, and hadīth (...) is one of these books. Al-Muḥāsibī was a writer who lived in a period when philological and Sharīʿah sciences gained a systematic structure and schools were born and developed. Muhāsib'i's multifaceted scholarly depth, the requirements of his time, and the characteristics of his work distinguish Fahm al-Qurʾān from other works in the field in terms of its problematic, content, and style. It can be said that Fahm al-Qurʾān consists of two main chapters. In the first chapter, the issues of kalām, meaning, and reason are subjected to a quiddity inquiry. In the second chapter, the linguistic aspect of kalām is emphasized and the content and style of the Qur'ān are discussed under the headings of muhkam- mutashābih, naskh and üslūb al-Qur'ān. In this work, al-Muḥāsibī suggests that before asking How we should understand the Qur'ān?, the reader should ask What exactly is being understood and what is meaning? The first of these questions includes the question Who am I? While the sources of The Sciences of the Qurʾān mostly focus on how to understand the Qurʾān at the epistemological and methodological level, in Fahm al- Qurʾān, the meaning of understanding the Qurʾān is problematized and a theory of reason and meaning that is competent with moral training is built. Thus, the conceptual inquiries of the work extend to the existential philosophy of the author. Despite these privileges, it is surprising that Fahm al-Qurʾān did not gain a prominent place among the main sources of tafsir methodology in later periods. This may be due to the theorization of a theory of meaning in which moral maturation is placed at the center. In this research, while trying to reveal the original value that Muhāsibī added to the field with Fahm al-Qurʾān, the systematic structure of the science of interpretation, its connection with other religious sciences, the relationship between speech adjective and language were made problematic and tried to be resolved in the context of the research hypothesis. In this context, it has been determined that al-Muḥāsibī's Fahm al-Qurʾān draws the conceptual framework of tafsīr methodology in relation to the authentic structure of the sharī'ah sciences at a very early period. The fact that Fahm al-Qurʾān carries important signs regarding the position of tafsīr in the hierarchy of sciences and its relationship with other sharī'ah sciences increases the value of the work in identifying the codes of the traditional paradigm. In the research, in which induction methods were used in text analysis and deduction methods were used in discourse analysis, it was determined that Fahm al-Qurʾān had a fiction that shapes the traditional paradigm and depicts the authentic structure of religious sciences. (shrink)

The aim of this study is to examine the influence of the Italian thinker Machiavelli on the approaches of Pareto, Mosca and Michels, which are the classical representatives of elite theories and elitist approaches discussed in the discipline of political sociology. Majority-minority relations that shape the political forms of government, the share of the powerful and influential in the government, the reasons that ensure the social acceptance of power, and the legitimation of these reasons fall within the scope of elite (...) theories.Some concepts emphasized by elite theorists are related to the basic concepts that Machiavelli put forward in his teachings. These concepts and the contexts in which they are used depend on being powerful, cunning and protecting one's status, etc. is related.It is thought that examining the effects of Machiavellian attitudes and methods on the formation of elite theories will allow the classical elite approaches to be examined from a different perspective. It is important for both sociology and political sciences to examine the projection of the concept of "inequality", which is examined as a sociological concept, and the concept of "stratification" based on it, in the political field, with the help of elite theories. Because the Machiavellian philosophy in the background of elite-elite approaches illuminates the main lines of the systematic of political stratification. In this study, a method in which primary and secondary sources are examined and the views of thinkers are presented comparatively has been adopted. Therefore, first of all, information about the theoretical background was given, based on the views put forward by Machiavelli in his works. Then, the contributions of the above-mentioned thinkers to elite theories are discussed comparatively. (shrink)

The digital revolution has disruptively reshaped the way health services are provided and how research is conducted. This transformation has produced novel ethical challenges. The digitalization of...

Ockhamlı William’dan bu yana çeşitli biçim alışlarla karşımıza çıkan dilde sadeleşme hareketi, 20. Yüzyılda analitik dil felsefesinin kurucuları tarafından farklı bir boyuta taşınmış, mantıksal pozitivizmde ise zirveye ulaşmıştır. Doğa bilimsel yöntemlerin etkisiyle şekillenen ve modern mantık alanında yapılan özgün ve nitelikli çalışmaların etkisiyle yetkinleşen bu anlayış, felsefenin metafizik problemlerini dil bağlamında ele almaktadır. Bu görüşün savunucuları, getirmiş oldukları bir dizi ölçüt aracılığıyla anlamlı olan ve olmayan ifadeler arasında ayrım yapmayı hedeflemişlerdir. Felsefi gelenekteki çözümsüz görünen “anlamsız” metafizik tartışmaları “elimine etmeyi” amaçlayan (...) bu hareketin vardığı son noktada, olgusal bir karşılığı bulunmayan ve mantıksal sözdizimi kurallarına uymayan her ifade, metafiziğin kalıntısı olmakla itham edilmektedir. Adorno ve Horkheimer’a göre spekülatif felsefeye yönelik gerçekleştirilen bu saldırı, Aydınlanma’nın dili mitostan arındırma çabalarının doruk noktasıdır. Onlara göre analitik dil felsefesinin olgucu filozoflarının felsefelerinde dilin anlam taşımasına müsaade edilmemekte ve yalnızca gösterge işlevi dikkate alınmaktadır. Dil, bir formül olarak katılaşarak soyutlaşmakta ve formüle uymayan her düşünce solup gitmektedir. Bu anlayış, spekülatif felsefe geleneğindeki felsefi sistemlerin unsurları olan etik, estetik, yaşamın anlamı gibi konuların felsefeden tasfiye edilmesine yol açmıştır. Adorno ve Horkheimer’a göre varlık alanındaki niteliksel farklılıkların göz ardı edilmesi, insanın şeyleşmesi ve kendi özüne yabancılaşmasına sebep olmuş, bireyin gizilgüçlerini kaybettiği bu ortamda toplumsal dönüşümün imkanı da ortadan kalkmıştır. (shrink)

Tarihte Aydınlanma adıyla bilinen dönemden bu yana metafizik, “bilimsel” olanın karşısına konumlandırılmıştır. Kabaca söyleyecek olursak Aydınlanma düşüncesi, bir zamanlar dünyayı açıklama ve onu anlamlandırmanın yegane yolu olan metafiziği hurafe ve safsata olarak görme, buna karşılık deneyime ve olgulara itibar etme eğilimindedir. Biz bu çalışmada, metafiziğe mesafeli olmak konusunda birleşen ve felsefelerinde genel olarak deneyimden ve olgulardan yana tavır takındığını söyleyebileceğimiz iki filozof olan Ludwig Wittgenstein ve William James’i karşılaştırdık. Herhangi iki şey arasında kıyaslama yapabilmek, ortak unsurların asgari düzeyde varlığını gerektirir. (...) Biz bahsi geçen iki düşünürü onların “doğruluk” anlayışları ve buna paralel olarak metafiziği değerlendirme biçimleri bağlamında ele aldık. Wittgenstein’a göre dünya hakkında öznellikten arınmış objektif bilgiye erişmek mümkündür. Ona göre psikoloji, epistemolojiden kesin olarak ayrılmalıdır. Doğruluğun süzgeci dildeki mantıksal form, nesneleri de olgulardır. Bu koşulları yerine getirmeyen tümceler anlamdan yoksundur. Metafiziğin kendisine konu edindiği nesneler, üzerine konuşulamayanlardır. Onlar “gösterilebilir” fakat dile getirilemezler. Oysa James için durum farklıdır. Ona göre olgular kendi başlarına doğru veya yanlış olamazlar. Doğruluk James’e göre zihnin deneyim süreçleriyle şekillenmektedir ve esnek bir yapıdadır. Mevcut inanç stokumuz ile uyumlu olan ve pratik olarak bir fark yaratabilen her türden düşünce doğruluk vasfını yerine getirmeye hak kazanacaktır. James’e göre psikoloji, doğrulanma süreçlerinden ve doğrunun kendisinden bağımsız değildir. (shrink)